Migration and Refugees: KS3 Geography Guide

More than 100 million people are currently displaced from their homes — the highest figure ever recorded. From Syrian families sheltering in Turkey to Ukrainian refugees across Europe, human movement reshapes places on every scale. Understanding migration, its causes, and its consequences is a cornerstone of KS3 geography and one of the defining issues of our time.

Key terms in migration geography

Precise language matters enormously in this topic — both in examinations and in public debate. Here are the essential definitions:

Migration: the permanent or semi-permanent movement of people from one place to another, whether across a street, a national border, or an ocean.

Emigrant: a person who leaves their country of origin (described from the perspective of the origin country).

Immigrant: a person who arrives in a new country (described from the perspective of the destination country). The same person is simultaneously an emigrant and an immigrant — the word depends on which end of the journey you are describing.

Refugee: a person who has been forced to flee their country because of a well-founded fear of persecution based on race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or membership of a particular social group. This definition comes from the 1951 Refugee Convention, the cornerstone of international refugee law.

Asylum seeker: a person who has applied for refugee status in another country and is awaiting a decision. Not all asylum seekers are granted refugee status.

Economic migrant: a person who moves primarily for work and better economic prospects. Economic migrants are making a choice, however constrained; refugees are fleeing danger. The distinction matters both legally and politically.

Internally displaced person (IDP): someone forced from their home but still within their own country's borders — the largest single category of forced displacement globally.

Push and pull factors

The push–pull model, developed by geographer E. S. Lee in 1966, remains the standard KS3 framework for explaining why migration occurs. It divides the causes of migration into two groups.

Push factors drive people OUT of their origin place:

Conflict and political persecution

Poverty and unemployment

Natural disasters, drought, and environmental degradation

Lack of healthcare, education, or other services

Land degradation making farming impossible

Pull factors draw people INTO a destination place:

Job opportunities and higher wages

Safety and political stability

Better healthcare, education, and public services

Family and community networks already established at the destination

Greater political freedom

Between origin and destination lie intervening obstacles — barriers that make migration more difficult: the cost of travel, physical distance, immigration controls and legal restrictions, and language differences. Wealthier and more educated migrants face fewer obstacles. This means the world's most desperate people often face the greatest barriers to reaching safety.

Types of migration

Example migration flow | Origin | Destination | Type | Key push/pull factors
Polish workers to UK (2004–2016) | Poland | United Kingdom | Voluntary (economic) | EU freedom of movement; large wage differential; English language
Syrian refugees (post-2011) | Syria | Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Germany | Forced | Civil war; political persecution; regime violence
Rural-to-urban (China) | Chinese countryside | Shanghai, Beijing, Shenzhen | Voluntary/internal | Industrial jobs; urban wages; Chinese urbanisation policy
Rohingya from Myanmar | Rakhine State, Myanmar | Bangladesh (Cox's Bazar) | Forced | Ethnic persecution; state violence; statelessness
Ukrainian refugees (post-2022) | Ukraine | Poland, Germany, UK | Forced | Russian military invasion
Pacific Islanders (sea-level rise) | Tuvalu, Kiribati | New Zealand, Australia | Environmental (forced) | Sea-level rise; freshwater loss; existential threat to homeland

Voluntary migration occurs when people choose to move, primarily for economic reasons. Forced migration occurs when people have no genuine choice — they are fleeing conflict, persecution, or environmental catastrophe.

Internal migration (within a single country) is quantitatively far larger than international migration. China's rural-to-urban migration — perhaps 300 million people over three decades — is arguably the largest organised human migration in history, driving cities such as Shenzhen from a small fishing village to a metropolis of over 17 million people.

Global refugee flows: the scale of displacement

The scale of forced displacement is extraordinary. By the mid-2020s, the UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) estimated that over 100 million people were forcibly displaced — the highest number since records began. The main drivers include conflicts in Syria, Ukraine, Afghanistan, South Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of Congo.

A crucial geographical misconception to correct: the majority of the world's refugees are not in Western Europe or North America. The countries hosting the most refugees are mostly middle-income neighbours of conflict zones:

Turkey hosts over 3.5 million Syrian refugees — the single largest refugee-hosting population on Earth.

Colombia hosts millions of Venezuelans fleeing economic collapse and political repression.

Pakistan and Iran together host millions of Afghan refugees, many of whom have lived there for decades across multiple generations.

Uganda operates some of the world's most progressive refugee policies, giving refugees the right to work and move freely within the country.

Western nations, which dominate political and media discussion of "the refugee crisis", collectively host a small fraction of the global total.

SEEP impacts of migration

Social: For origin communities, migration can cause brain drain — the loss of doctors, engineers, and teachers who move abroad, leaving healthcare and education systems in lower-income countries weakened at the very point where they are most needed. This is a serious and documented issue across sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. For destination communities, migrants bring skills, cultural diversity, and demographic renewal to ageing populations. They may also face discrimination, poor housing conditions, language barriers, and social exclusion that make integration difficult and slow.

Economic: Remittances — money sent home by migrants to their families — are one of the most powerful economic forces in the developing world. Globally, remittances exceed $800 billion per year, substantially more than the total value of international development aid. In countries such as the Philippines, Nepal, and Senegal, remittances can represent 20–30% of GDP. For host countries, migrants fill critical labour gaps — particularly in healthcare, agriculture, construction, and the care sector — and pay taxes that fund public services. Short-term costs of housing and services for new arrivals are real but tend to be outweighed by long-term economic contributions.

Environmental: A growing category of displacement is driven by environmental change. Climate refugees — people displaced by sea-level rise, desertification, and extreme weather — represent one of the most significant geographical issues of the coming decades. Communities on Pacific island nations such as Tuvalu and Kiribati face an existential territorial threat. Urban growth driven by rural-to-urban migration also places enormous pressure on resources and infrastructure in destination cities — water supply, sewage treatment, housing, and transport systems.

Political: Migration is among the most politically contentious issues in many countries. Brexit was partly driven by public concern about levels of EU migration to the UK during the 2000s and 2010s. Hungary and Poland built border fences and refused EU refugee relocation quotas. The US–Mexico border is a perpetual flash-point in American politics. It is important to distinguish between the politics of migration and the legal obligations under international law: signatories to the 1951 Refugee Convention are legally bound to assess asylum claims and must not return refugees to danger (the principle of non-refoulement). Economic migration is largely at the discretion of individual states, which creates quite different legal and political terrain.

Language and responsible geography

This topic requires particular care with language. The term "illegal immigrant" is contested and widely considered inaccurate when applied to asylum seekers: seeking asylum is a legal right under international law — there is no illegal way to claim asylum, regardless of how a person arrived. The UNHCR uses "asylum seeker" for those awaiting a decision and "refugee" for those granted status. Precise, respectful terminology is part of good geographical practice — and it matters in examination answers, where imprecise language costs marks.

Frequently asked questions

What is the difference between a refugee and an economic migrant?

A refugee has fled their country because of a well-founded fear of persecution — due to war, political opinion, religion, ethnicity, or membership of a particular social group — as defined by the 1951 Refugee Convention. They have a legal right to apply for asylum, and host countries have legal obligations to protect them. An economic migrant moves primarily for better work or living standards — a choice rather than a necessity. The distinction matters legally: states have formal obligations to refugees but far more discretion over economic migrants.

What are push and pull factors in migration?

Push factors are negative conditions that drive people away from their origin — conflict, poverty, drought, unemployment, or political persecution. Pull factors are positive conditions that attract people to a destination — job opportunities, higher wages, safety, family networks already established there, or better services. Most migration is driven by a combination of both. Intervening obstacles — cost, distance, immigration controls, and language barriers — filter who is actually able to migrate. The poorest often face the greatest obstacles despite having the strongest push factors.

Why are most of the world's refugees hosted in middle-income countries rather than wealthy ones?

Geography is the primary explanation: refugees flee to the nearest safe place, and conflict zones are overwhelmingly near lower-income regions. Turkey borders Syria; Pakistan and Iran border Afghanistan; Uganda borders South Sudan and the DRC. Wealthier nations are further away, and legal barriers, sea crossings, and cost make reaching Europe or North America far harder. The humanitarian burden falls disproportionately on countries with far fewer resources.

What is meant by brain drain, and why does it matter?

Brain drain is the emigration of skilled, educated, or trained people from lower-income to higher-income countries. When doctors, nurses, engineers, and teachers emigrate, the countries they leave are deprived of human capital they invested heavily in training. Sub-Saharan Africa loses an estimated billions of dollars annually to this transfer — from countries that can least afford it.

How might climate change increase migration in the future?

Climate change is projected to increase the frequency of displacement conditions: drought, flooding, extreme heat, desertification, and sea-level rise. The World Bank estimates over 200 million people could become internal climate migrants by 2050 — displaced within their own countries by environmental change. Low-lying nations such as Tuvalu and Kiribati face inundation within decades. Climate migrants currently have no dedicated legal status under international law — a gap geographers and legal scholars are pressing governments to close.

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