Space Exploration and Rockets: KS3 Physics Guide

Rockets and spacecraft have allowed humans to explore beyond Earth, from the Moon landings of the late 1960s to robotic missions on Mars today. Understanding the physics of space travel — thrust, orbital mechanics, and the challenges of long-duration spaceflight — is a growing part of KS3 physics.

How does a rocket engine produce thrust?

Before we dig into the physics — what do you think will happen? Imagine you are standing on a skateboard holding a heavy ball. You throw the ball forward as hard as you can. What happens to you? Most people predict they stay still. But in fact, you roll backwards — pushed in the opposite direction by the same force that sends the ball forward. This is Newton's Third Law in action, and it is the entire principle behind rocket propulsion.

Newton's Third Law states: every action force has an equal and opposite reaction force. Rocket engines burn fuel — typically liquid hydrogen combined with liquid oxygen, or a solid propellant mixture — producing extremely hot, rapidly expanding gases. These gases are expelled downward through a nozzle at enormous velocity. The action force acts on the exhaust gas (downward); the reaction force acts on the rocket (upward). That upward force is thrust.

This is why rockets work in space where there is no air. Jet aircraft engines work by drawing in atmospheric oxygen and burning fuel with it — no air means no jet engine. Rockets carry their own oxidiser (the substance that reacts with fuel to release energy), so they are entirely self-contained. The vacuum of space is not an obstacle for a rocket — it is irrelevant.

What forces act on a rocket during launch?

Here is the classic Predict-Observe-Explain challenge: if you watch a rocket launch, what forces are acting on it, and how do they change over time? Take a moment to think before reading on.

During launch through the atmosphere, three forces act on a rocket:

Thrust (upward): produced by the engine expelling exhaust gases downward

Weight (downward): the gravitational pull of Earth on the rocket's total mass (W = mg)

Air resistance / drag (opposing motion, so downward during ascent): the friction of passing through the atmosphere

For the rocket to accelerate upward, thrust must exceed weight plus drag. This is why rockets must be so powerful relative to their payload — they must overcome not only gravity but also the resistance of the atmosphere.

Here is the elegant physics: as the rocket climbs and burns fuel, two things happen simultaneously. First, its mass decreases (because fuel is being consumed and ejected), so by Newton's Second Law (F = ma), the same thrust force produces a greater acceleration. Second, as the rocket rises into thinner atmosphere, drag decreases. Both effects together cause rockets to accelerate faster as they climb — a result that surprises many students who expect the acceleration to slow as the rocket "fights harder" against gravity at altitude. In fact, above the atmosphere, there is no drag at all, and only weight (which itself weakens with distance from Earth) opposes the thrust.

What is needed to reach orbit?

This is one of the most common misconceptions in space physics, and it is worth pausing here: what do you think determines whether a spacecraft stays in orbit or falls back to Earth?

Most students' first instinct is that a spacecraft reaches orbit by going high enough. But altitude alone is not sufficient. A spacecraft dropped from 400 km with no horizontal velocity would simply fall straight back down to Earth. Reaching orbit requires travelling sideways very fast.

Here is the worked example:

Orbital mechanics at low Earth orbit (LEO)

Altitude of LEO: ~200–400 km above Earth's surface

Required horizontal orbital speed at 400 km altitude: approximately 7,900 m/s (about 28,400 km/h)

At this speed, the spacecraft moves so far forward horizontally in every second that Earth's surface curves away beneath it at exactly the rate the spacecraft is falling towards it

Gravity is still acting — at 400 km altitude, the gravitational field strength is about 8.7 N/kg, roughly 87% of the surface value

The spacecraft is not "beyond gravity" — it is in a continuous free fall, curving around Earth rather than plummeting into it

The sensation of "weightlessness" inside the spacecraft occurs because both the spacecraft and every person and object inside it are falling at exactly the same rate — there is no contact force between them and the floor

The International Space Station orbits at approximately 400 km altitude at a speed of about 7.66 km/s, completing one full orbit of Earth roughly every 92 minutes.

What are the key milestones in human space exploration?

Year | Mission | Achievement
1957 | Sputnik 1 (USSR) | First artificial satellite in orbit
1961 | Vostok 1 (USSR) | First human in space (Yuri Gagarin)
1969 | Apollo 11 (USA) | First humans on the Moon (Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin)
1971 | Salyut 1 (USSR) | First space station
1998–present | International Space Station | Continuous human presence in space since 2000
2004 | Mars rovers Spirit and Opportunity (USA) | Long-duration Mars surface exploration
2021 | Perseverance rover (USA) | Mars exploration; collected rock samples for potential return

These milestones span less than 70 years — humans first achieved powered flight in 1903. The pace of progress reflects the enormous investment (the USA spent roughly 4.4% of its federal budget on NASA during the Space Race), and a real human cost: three astronauts died in the Apollo 1 fire of 1967. Space exploration has never been without risk.

What are the challenges of long-duration spaceflight?

Ask yourself: what do you think will happen to a human body spending six months in the microgravity environment of the International Space Station? The Predict-Observe-Explain approach reveals some surprising answers.

Microgravity and the human body: without gravitational load, bones lose mineral density at roughly 1–2% per month — far faster than osteoporosis on Earth. Muscles, including the heart, atrophy because they do not need to work against gravity. Astronauts exercise for at least two hours daily using resistance machines to slow this deconditioning, yet returning astronauts often struggle to walk and require rehabilitation.

Radiation: outside Earth's magnetic shield, radiation exposure runs roughly 0.3–0.6 millisieverts per day — far above the ~3 millisieverts per year experienced on Earth. This raises long-term cancer risk and risks acute radiation sickness during solar particle events. Shielding adds mass and fuel cost, making this a difficult engineering problem.

Isolation and psychology: crew members live in confined spaces with no emergency evacuation for months at a time. Communication delays grow with distance — up to 20 minutes each way to Mars — requiring increasingly autonomous decision-making and placing significant demands on crew psychology.

Life support: oxygen, water, and food must be carried or recycled. The ISS recycles approximately 90% of its water from sweat, exhaled vapour, and urine. Food cannot yet be grown in sufficient quantities for long missions.

Re-entry heating: returning to Earth's atmosphere at orbital speed (~7.9 km/s), a spacecraft's kinetic energy is converted to heat through compression of the air ahead of it (not primarily friction, despite common descriptions). Surface temperatures can reach ~1,600 °C. Thermal protection systems — ceramic tiles on the Space Shuttle, ablative heat shields on capsules — are essential, and their failure cost the lives of the seven Columbia crew members in 2003.

Why is space exploration important?

A reasonable question to ask is: with so many challenges and such enormous cost, why do it? Predict what you think the strongest arguments are, then compare with the list below.

Space exploration has transformed our understanding of the solar system's formation, Earth's place within it, and the potential for life elsewhere. Robotic missions have revealed active geology, ancient river systems, subsurface oceans, and complex organic chemistry across our solar system. The James Webb Space Telescope is already imaging the first galaxies formed after the Big Bang.

The practical benefits on Earth are substantial: GPS navigation, satellite communications, weather forecasting, crop monitoring, disaster tracking, and climate science all depend on orbital infrastructure built through decades of space programmes. Medical imaging technologies including MRI scanners, water purification systems, and lightweight heat-resistant materials were developed partly through space research.

The inspiration and education case is difficult to quantify but real: the Apollo missions coincided with a marked increase in young people pursuing careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, a pattern observed again following the Mars Curiosity rover landing in 2012.

Frequently asked questions

Why do rockets need to carry their own oxygen?

Combustion requires oxygen (or another oxidiser). Jet engines draw oxygen from the atmosphere — in space there is none, so rockets must carry their own oxidiser: liquid oxygen (LOX) stored separately, or a solid oxidiser mixed into solid propellant. The oxidiser often outweighs the fuel itself, which helps explain why propellant typically makes up 85–95% of a rocket's launch mass.

What is the difference between mass and weight in space?

Mass is the amount of matter in an object and never changes. An 80 kg astronaut has a mass of 80 kg everywhere. Weight is the gravitational force on that mass (W = mg). On Earth (g ≈ 10 N/kg) they weigh 800 N; on the Moon (g ≈ 1.6 N/kg), 128 N. In orbit, the astronaut is in continuous free fall — they feel weightless, but gravity still acts on them, keeping them in orbit.

How do astronauts return to Earth safely?

A spacecraft returning from orbit moves at around 7.9 km/s. To land, it converts kinetic energy into heat through atmospheric compression. The entry angle is critical: too steep causes dangerous overheating; too shallow and the craft bounces off the upper atmosphere. Heat shields absorb and dissipate the heat. Parachutes then slow the final descent, and some vehicles use retro-rockets for touchdown.

Could humans ever reach another star?

Alpha Centauri, the nearest star system, is about 4.2 light-years away — roughly 40 trillion kilometres. Even the fastest spacecraft ever launched (New Horizons, ~58,000 km/h) would take around 78,000 years to get there. Reaching another star in a human lifetime would require propulsion far beyond current capability, or near-light-speed travel — at which point Einstein's special relativity predicts time dilation for the crew. Both remain theoretical.

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