Global Energy Resources and Sustainability: KS3 Geography Guide

Energy powers every aspect of modern life — from the phone in your pocket to the hospital keeping patients alive. But energy resources are not spread equally across the planet, and the way we produce and consume energy is transforming the Earth's climate. Understanding the geography of energy is one of the most urgent skills in KS3 geography.

Non-renewable energy sources

Non-renewable energy sources are those that cannot be replenished within a human timescale. The most important are fossil fuels — coal, oil, and natural gas — formed from the remains of ancient organisms over hundreds of millions of years. A fourth non-renewable source, nuclear energy, uses the element uranium; while uranium is finite, it is extraordinarily energy-dense (one kilogram releases as much energy as 3,000 tonnes of coal).

Advantages of non-renewable energy: they are highly reliable, energy-dense, and backed by enormous existing infrastructure — pipelines, power stations, and distribution grids built over more than a century.

Disadvantages: burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other greenhouse gases, driving climate change. They are finite and will eventually run out. Oil prices are volatile and subject to geopolitical shocks, and many countries must import them, creating energy dependency.

Renewable energy sources

Renewable energy sources are replenished naturally and will not run out. They include:

Solar power: converts sunlight into electricity using photovoltaic panels or concentrating mirrors. Highest potential near the Equator and in deserts — the Sahara, the Arabian Peninsula, and central Australia.

Wind power: turbines convert the kinetic energy of moving air. Strongest resources are offshore in Northern Europe (the North Sea is one of the world's windiest places) and on the Great Plains of the USA.

Hydroelectric power (HEP): flowing water turns turbines. Major rivers — the Yangtze (China), Congo (DRC), Amazon (Brazil), and Mekong (South-East Asia) — generate enormous quantities.

Tidal and wave power: harnessing the movement of the sea; still largely experimental, though promising in coastal nations such as the UK.

Geothermal energy: heat from within the Earth, used where tectonic activity brings it close to the surface (Iceland, New Zealand, Kenya).

Biomass: burning organic material (wood, crop waste, specially grown energy crops). Technically renewable but releases CO₂ when burnt.

Advantages: virtually infinite, with low or zero carbon emissions during operation. Disadvantages: solar and wind are intermittent (dependent on sunshine and wind speed); all renewables require significant upfront investment; some have substantial land-use or environmental impacts.

Global distribution of energy resources

Energy resources are distributed unevenly across the planet — a fundamental geographical fact that drives economics and politics alike.

Energy source | Type | Carbon emissions | Reliability | Main locations | UK context
Coal | Non-renewable | Very high | Reliable | China, USA, Australia, India | Under 2% of electricity (2023)
Oil | Non-renewable | High | Reliable (pipeline/tanker) | Middle East, Russia, USA (shale), North Sea | Imported; domestic North Sea declining
Natural gas | Non-renewable | Medium | Reliable | Russia, Middle East, USA, North Sea | ~40% of UK electricity
Nuclear | Non-renewable | Near-zero in operation | Very reliable | France, USA, China, UK | ~15% of UK electricity
Solar | Renewable | Zero in operation | Intermittent | Sahara, Middle East, Australia, SW USA | Growing; limited by UK cloud cover
Wind (offshore) | Renewable | Zero in operation | Variable | North Sea, Baltic, Great Plains USA | UK world leader offshore
Hydro | Renewable | Near-zero | Reliable (where rainfall consistent) | Yangtze, Congo, Amazon, Mekong | Small contribution in Scotland

Saudi Arabia, Iran, and the UAE sit above roughly 55% of the world's proven oil reserves. Russia controls vast natural gas fields and the pipelines that feed much of Europe. These geographical concentrations create enormous political leverage.

What is energy security?

A country has energy security when it has a reliable, affordable, and sufficient supply of energy. Countries with large domestic fossil fuel reserves — Russia, Saudi Arabia, the USA — enjoy high energy security. Countries that import most of their energy — Japan, Germany, the UK — are more vulnerable.

The 2021–22 European energy crisis illustrates this starkly. Russia reduced natural gas supplies to Europe following tensions over Ukraine, sending prices soaring. German households saw gas bills triple. The UK, though less dependent on Russian gas, still felt the ripple effect through global markets. Energy security moved from an abstract policy concept to front-page news overnight.

The energy mix and the global energy transition

Almost all countries use an energy mix — a combination of different sources. The global trend is toward more renewables, but the pace varies dramatically by place.

In the UK, coal generated about 40% of electricity in 2012. By 2023, it had fallen to under 2%, with offshore wind and gas filling the gap — a remarkable energy transition. Yet globally, coal use is still rising, driven by rapid industrialisation in China and India, where hundreds of millions of people are gaining access to electricity for the first time. This tension — between the development needs of lower-income countries and the need to reduce emissions — is central to the politics of the energy transition.

SEEP impacts of the energy transition

The shift away from fossil fuels has consequences across all four dimensions of the SEEP framework.

Social: Around one billion people lack reliable access to electricity, concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa and parts of South Asia. This is energy poverty — it limits access to education, healthcare, refrigeration for food and medicines, and economic opportunity. Off-grid solar power can bring electricity to remote communities that the national grid has never reached.

Economic: Countries whose economies depend heavily on fossil fuel exports — Russia, Saudi Arabia, Nigeria, Venezuela — face serious long-term economic risk as global demand for oil and gas falls. The renewable energy sector creates new manufacturing, installation, and maintenance jobs. For lower-income countries, the high upfront cost of renewable infrastructure remains a significant barrier.

Environmental: Burning fossil fuels is the leading cause of CO₂ emissions and local air pollution. But renewable energy is not without environmental cost: manufacturing lithium-ion batteries requires mining lithium and cobalt, often in ecologically sensitive places; large wind and solar farms can disrupt habitats; hydroelectric dams flood valleys and alter river ecosystems.

Political: OPEC (the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries) controls a large share of global oil supply and can raise or lower prices by adjusting production. Countries compete geopolitically over fossil fuel transport routes such as the Strait of Hormuz. Annual COP (Conference of Parties) summits attempt to coordinate the global transition, but enforcement remains weak and progress uneven across nations.

Frequently asked questions

What is the difference between renewable and non-renewable energy sources?

Renewable energy sources — solar, wind, hydro, tidal, and geothermal — are naturally replenished and will not run out. Non-renewable energy sources — fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) and nuclear — are finite; once used, they cannot be replaced within a human timescale. The key geographical difference is that non-renewables are concentrated in specific places, giving those countries enormous political and economic power, whereas renewable potential is far more widely distributed across the globe.

Why do some countries have better energy security than others?

Countries with large domestic energy reserves — Russia for gas, Saudi Arabia for oil, the USA for both — can meet their own energy needs without importing. Countries with few domestic reserves, such as Japan (which imports almost all its energy) and the UK, are exposed to price shocks and supply disruptions. The degree of energy security a country enjoys is shaped by its geology, geography, and political relationships with producer nations.

What is meant by the energy transition, and why does it matter?

The energy transition is the global shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources. It matters because fossil fuels are finite and are the primary driver of climate change. However, the transition is deeply uneven: wealthier countries are moving faster, while lower-income countries still depend heavily on coal, oil, and gas for development. This creates tensions in international climate negotiations, where poorer nations argue they need time and financial support to transition.

How does the energy mix in the UK compare to the global average?

The UK has made significant progress in reducing coal use, with offshore wind becoming increasingly important. By 2023, renewables generated roughly 40% of UK electricity, and coal had fallen to under 2%. Globally, coal still accounts for around 35–40% of electricity generation, much of it in China and India. The UK's island geography gives it exceptional offshore wind resources — one of its key advantages in the energy transition, which many other countries cannot replicate.

Why is energy a geopolitical issue?

Energy resources are unevenly distributed, which gives producer countries enormous power over consumer nations. Russia used gas supply as political leverage over Europe during the 2021–22 crisis. OPEC nations can influence the global economy by adjusting oil production. Consumer countries build their foreign policy partly around securing energy supplies. As the world transitions to renewables, new geopolitical tensions may emerge around the minerals needed for batteries and solar panels — lithium, cobalt, and rare earth elements are concentrated in only a handful of countries.

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