The Cold War Explained for KS3 History

The Cold War was a period of intense political rivalry and military tension between the United States and the Soviet Union that lasted from the end of World War Two in 1945 until the collapse of the USSR in 1991. It was called "cold" because the two superpowers never fought each other directly — instead they competed through arms races, propaganda, and proxy wars around the globe.

Why did the Cold War begin?

The United States and the Soviet Union emerged from World War Two as the two most powerful nations on earth, but they held fundamentally incompatible visions of how societies should be organised.

The USA believed in liberal democracy and capitalist economics: free elections, private property and the free market. The Soviet Union (USSR) was a communist state: the economy was controlled by the government, private ownership was largely abolished, and political opposition was banned.

During World War Two these differences had been set aside to defeat Nazi Germany. Once the common enemy was gone, the ideological gulf reopened immediately. Stalin's Soviet Union installed communist governments across Eastern Europe in 1945 and 1946 — countries including Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and East Germany — turning them into satellite states that served Soviet interests. The USA, under President Truman, saw this as Soviet expansion and a threat to democratic freedom.

The Iron Curtain speech by Winston Churchill at Fulton, Missouri, on 5 March 1946 put the division into memorable language: "From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent."

What was the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan?

In 1947, President Truman set out what became known as the Truman Doctrine: the United States would support "free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." This was directed immediately at Greece and Turkey, where Soviet-backed communist movements were active.

In the same year, the USA launched the Marshall Plan — a programme of economic aid to rebuild war-damaged European countries, worth approximately $13 billion (equivalent to more than $150 billion today). The stated aim was humanitarian recovery, but it also served to bind Western European economies to the USA and reduce the appeal of communism in countries struggling with poverty. The Soviet Union refused Marshall Aid for itself and forbade its satellite states from accepting it.

Key Cold War events: a timeline

Year | Event
1947 | Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan announced
1948–49 | Berlin Blockade: USSR blocks Allied access to West Berlin; USA and UK mount 11-month airlift
1949 | USSR tests its first atomic bomb; NATO formed; China becomes communist
1950–53 | Korean War: USA and allies fight communist North Korea (backed by China and USSR)
1957 | USSR launches Sputnik — first artificial satellite, beginning the Space Race
1961 | Berlin Wall built; Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba fails
1962 | Cuban Missile Crisis: 13-day stand-off brings world closest to nuclear war
1969 | USA lands men on the Moon (Apollo 11)
1979–89 | Soviet invasion of Afghanistan; USA backs Afghan mujahideen
1989 | Berlin Wall falls (9 November); Eastern European communist governments collapse
1991 | USSR dissolved; Cold War ends

What was the arms race?

One of the defining features of the Cold War was the nuclear arms race. When the USA dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, it became the first and only power to use nuclear weapons in warfare. The USSR detonated its first atomic bomb in 1949, ending the American monopoly. Both sides then invested enormous resources in building larger, more numerous nuclear weapons — and in developing the missiles to deliver them.

By the early 1960s, both the USA and USSR had enough nuclear warheads to destroy each other — and much of the world — many times over. This situation of "mutually assured destruction" (MAD) was simultaneously terrifying and stabilising: neither side could launch a first strike without expecting total annihilation in return.

The National Archives holds declassified British government documents from the Cold War era that reveal the genuine fear among policymakers that a miscalculation could trigger a nuclear exchange. The Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 — when the USSR placed nuclear missiles on Cuba, within striking distance of the US mainland — brought that possibility closer than at any other point in the Cold War.

What were proxy wars?

Because a direct war between the USA and USSR risked nuclear escalation, both sides instead supported opposite sides in conflicts in other countries — these are called proxy wars. Rather than fighting each other, the superpowers equipped, funded and advised local forces who fought on their behalf.

Major proxy wars included:

Korea (1950–53): The USA and its allies fought communist North Korea (backed by the USSR and China) to defend South Korea.

Vietnam (1955–75): The USA fought alongside South Vietnam against communist North Vietnam, which was supported by the USSR and China. The USA eventually withdrew in 1973 and the north won in 1975.

Afghanistan (1979–89): The USSR invaded Afghanistan to prop up its communist government. The USA covertly armed the Afghan resistance. The Soviet Union withdrew in defeat after a decade, having lost approximately 15,000 soldiers.

How did the Cold War end?

The Cold War ended not with a bang but with an implosion. By the 1980s the Soviet economy was struggling under the weight of military spending and inefficient central planning. Mikhail Gorbachev, who became Soviet leader in 1985, introduced two key reforms: glasnost (openness, allowing greater freedom of speech and information) and perestroika (restructuring the economy to allow some market elements). These reforms loosened the grip of the communist party and unleashed political pressures that could not be controlled.

In 1989, communist governments fell across Eastern Europe. On 9 November 1989, crowds began tearing down the Berlin Wall — the most powerful symbol of Cold War division — watched live on television around the world. In December 1991, the USSR was formally dissolved into fifteen independent republics, and the Cold War was over.

Frequently asked questions

Why was it called the Cold War?

It was called "cold" because the two main rivals — the USA and the Soviet Union — never fought each other directly in open battle. The conflict was waged through political pressure, economic competition, propaganda, espionage and support for opposing sides in conflicts elsewhere. The "heat" of open warfare was always present as a threat but never materialised between the superpowers themselves.

What was the Berlin Wall and why was it built?

The Berlin Wall was a 155-kilometre barrier built by East Germany (under Soviet authority) from 13 August 1961 to divide communist East Berlin from capitalist West Berlin. Its purpose was to stop the mass emigration of East Germans to the West — by 1961, around 3.5 million people had fled. It stood until 9 November 1989, when crowds tore it down following the collapse of the East German communist government.

What was the Cuban Missile Crisis?

In October 1962, American spy planes discovered that the Soviet Union was installing nuclear missile sites in Cuba, just 145 kilometres from the US coast. For 13 days, President Kennedy and Soviet Premier Khrushchev negotiated while both sides' armed forces were on high alert. The crisis ended when the USSR agreed to remove its missiles from Cuba in exchange for a US pledge not to invade Cuba and a secret agreement to remove US missiles from Turkey.

Did Britain fight in any Cold War conflicts?

Britain was a member of NATO and maintained nuclear weapons (the V-bomber force from 1955 and Polaris submarines from 1968), contributing to Western deterrence. British forces fought in Korea (1950–53) alongside the USA under a United Nations mandate. Britain did not directly intervene in Vietnam. The Falklands War (1982), though often discussed in relation to Cold War geopolitics, was primarily a conflict with Argentina rather than the USSR.

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